The Perfect Shuffle of Two Regular Languages Is Again a Regular Language

Phonetic Features of Germanic Languages

Discussion Stress

1 of the nearly important common features of all Germanic languages is strong dynamic stressfalling on the first root syllable.

In Proto-Germanic (PG) force or expiratory stress (also chosen dynamic and breath stress) was the but blazon of stress used. The stress was at present stock-still on the first syllable, which was usually the root of the word and sometimes the prefix; the other syllables (suffixes and endings) were unstressed.

These features of word accent were inherited by the Germanic languages, and are observable today. In Mod English there is a abrupt contrast betwixt accented and unaccented syllables due to the strength of the stress. The chief accent commonly falls on the root-morpheme, and is never shifted in building grammatical forms.

Changes of Consonants

three.2.i. the First Consonant Shift, or Grimm�southward Law

By the Beginning Consonant Shift (Grimm�south Police force) we mean a number of consonant changes which date back to the Two millennium BC. By the year 500 BC the sound changes must have come up to a shut. They had ended earlier the Germanic tribes came in bear upon with the Romans because not any word borrowed from Latin was subject to those changes in Germanic languages. This police expresses regular correspondences between consonants of Germanic and those of other Indo-European languages.

Equally can be seen from Table 1.2, correspondences betwixt Indo-European (non-Germanic) and Germanic consonants may be grouped under three categories.

Table 1.2

Grimm�south Law

ACT I

Indo-European voiceless stops (p, t, k) correspond to Germanic voiceless fricatives (f, þ, h).

IE	PG	EXAMPLES
Voiceless stops	Voiceless fricatives
IE	Germ
p	f	Snsk páñcā(northward) R ���� Snsk pitár Gr patēr Snsk nápāt L nepōs	Goth fimf Eastward five Germ Vater E father Germ neffe E nephew
t	þ	Snsk tri, travas 50 trēs �three� Gr treis R ��� Snsk tad R ��� Toch matar	O Icel þrir Goth þreis [θri:south] E three OE ðæt Goth þata E mother
thousand	h	Snsk katarás Ukr ������ Hit kuis Fifty quis Hit kuit R ��� L quid Toch kant	Goth hwaþar East whether E who OE hwæt E hundred Goth hund

ACT Ii

Indo-European voiced stops (b, d, 1000) correspond to Germanic voiceless stops ( p, t, one thousand).

IE	PG	EXAMPLES
Voiced stops	Voiceless stops
IE	Germ
b	p	Lith dubús R ������	E deep Goth diups East puddle
d	t	Gr dyo L duo R ��� Sanskr. dru, dāru R ������	Due east 2 Goth twai O Icel tréir Goth triu E tree
g	thousand	Snsk yuga L jugum R ��� Snsk jắnu 50 knee	O Icel ok Goth juk East yoke Goth kniu E knee

Human action III

Indo-European voiced aspirated stops (bh, dh, gh) stand for to Germanic voiced stops without aspiration (b, d, g).

IE	PG	EXAMPLES
Voiced aspirated stops	Voiced stops without aspiration
IE	Germ
bh	b	Snsk bhárāmi Russ. ���� Snsk nábhas Gr nephos R ����	Goth bairan ['beran] E bear OE nifel OHG nebul Bone nebal
dh	d	Snsk madha R ��� Snsk mádhyas 50 medius Snsk dhrsnóti Gr thrasýs R ��������	OE medu Goth midjis E middle Goth (ga)dars OE dear(r ) N. djerv East dare
gh	g	Snsk stighnomi Gr steikho Snsk ghagh	Germ steigen E giggle

Some features of the First Consonants Shift require a special commentary.

Ø The correspondence IE b >Germ.pin Act 2 is scarcely illustrated as compared to other consonants changes due to the fact that the consonant pis very rare in native Germanic words [Rastorgueva].

Ø Voiced aspirated stops bh, dh, ghare but found in Sanskrit, whereas in the other Indo-European (not-Germanic) languages either voiceless fricatives (equally in Latin and Greek) or unaspirated voiced stops (every bit in Russian) are used.

Grimm�south Police came to be the first achievement of comparative-historical linguistics. However, still debatable is the time of the Shift, its reasons, phonological essence, phonetic mechanism, connection with similar processes in the subsequent history of Germanic languages.

Grimm�s Law apparently reflects historical processes caused by the evolution of the structure of the Proto-Indo-European languages; it is not restricted by the Germanic languages only [Plotkin].

3.2.2. Verner�s Law

Verner�s Police force, discovered in the tardily 19^th c. by the Danish scholar Karl Verner, explains some correspondences of consonants which seemed to contradict Grimm�s Police.

In some words Indo-European voiceless occlusive consonants p, t, k corresponded not to the expected voiceless fricatives f, θ, h just to voiced fricatives v, ð, γ or plosives b, d, thou, due east.one thousand. Greek dekas � Goth. tiku.s. (k � one thousand), Lat. pater � Goth. fadar (t � d).

According to Verner�s police, if an IE voiceless stop (p, t, k) was preceded past an unstressed vowel, the voiceless fricative (f, θ, h),which developed from it in accord with Grimm�s law,became voiced (v, ð, γ), and afterwardthis voiced fricativebecame a voiced finish (b, d, yard).

Verner�southward Law can be schematically presented as follows:

V + IE end → θ → ð → d,

where Vstands for an unstressed syllable, θ is a voiceless fricative formed in accordance with Grimm�southward Law, ð is a voiced fricative and d is a voiced stop.

Consider eastward.one thousand. the changes of the 2d consonant in the discussion father:

PIE Early PG Tardily PG

*pa΄ter > *fa΄θar > *fa΄ðar > > *΄faðar

At the time when the Germanic stress was free, voiceless fricatives in the position before a stressed syllable became voiced. So, in OE fæder (Goth. fadar) in accordance with Fifty. pater there was to exist a voiceless fricative in the heart of the give-and-take, e.g. *faþar. However, the stress in Gr. pa'ter, reflecting the earlier IE stress, accounts for this seeming incongruence. In the form *fa'þar expected in accordance with the First Consonant Shift the accent was on the 2d syllable. Nether voicing in accord with Verner�southward Police the class *fa'ðar can exist reconstructed. After the stress had been shifted to the root (first) syllable, voiced consonants, which appeared in accordance with Verner�s Police, got phonologized[1].

Co-ordinate to Verner's Law, the consonant was changed just when information technology was plant later an unstressed vowel. This tin be seen in the reconstructed forms of OE strong verbs, which permits a conclusion that at some fourth dimension the stress in the commencement two verbal forms fell on the root, and in the last two � on the suffix:

Class I sniþan � snaþ � snidon � sniden �to cutting�

þēōn � þ(eastward)āh � þione thousandon � þimen �to prosper�

Class Two fleon � flēāh � flugon � flogen �to abscond�

Class III weorþan � wearþ � wurdon � worden �to become�

Class Five cweþan � cwæþ � cwædon � cweden �to say�

Course Half-dozen hebban � hof � hōfon � hafen �to have�

Class Seven fōn (*fanhan) � feng � fengrandon � fanmen �to catch�

In the conjugation system one form may have its stress on ane syllable, while another form of the aforementioned verb may have it on another syllable. In this way, variants of the root arise, whose consonants are dissimilar in accordance with Verner�s police. Accordingly, alternations within the verbal arrangement ascend which have been named grammatical alternation. The original organisation of grammatical consonant alternation was: f/b, þ/d, h/g, hw/w, southward/r.

Changes of consonants that occurred in Germanic languages due to Verner�due south Police force can exist summarized in the post-obit table with a particular emphasis on English language and German.

Table 1.3

Consonant Alternations in Germanic Languages due to Verner�south Law

Indo-European	Germanic	English	German language
p	f / ѣ	f / five	f / b
t	þ / đ	th /d, th	d / t
k	h / k	h / one thousand	h / one thousand
grandu	hw, h / gw, thousand, due west	westward, h / g, w	w, h / g, w
s	s / z	south / r	s / r

Eventually, this system underwent some changes in several Germanic languages, including Old English language.

More than examples of Verner�due south Constabulary can be plant in the following table:

Table ane.4

Verner�south Law

Indo-European	Germanic
p, t, 1000, s	b, ð/d, g, z/r
Gr hepta Gr pater Gr dekas Snsk ayas	Goth sibun �seven� O Sc faðir, OE fæder Goth tigus �10, a dozen� Goth aiz,OHG ēr

Notation that some modern English words accept retained traces of Verner�s Law, e.g. seethe � sodden; death �dead; raise�rear; was�were.

Rhotacism

Also the voiceless fricative consonants resulting from the consonant shift, one more voiceless fricative is afflicted by Verner�due south Law, i.e. the consonant south.If the preceding vowel is unstressed, sin Germanic languagesbecomes voiced,i.due east.changes into z in the intervocal position. Eventually this z becomes rin Western Germanic and Northern Germanic languages (merely not in Gothic). This latter change z > r is termed rhotacism (the term is derived from the name of the Greek letter of the alphabet ρ (rho). This is clearly shown past comparing Goth hausjan �hear� and OE hīeran, G hōren; Goth laisjan �teach� and OE læran, Yard lehren.

Basing on the absenteeism of rhotacism in Gothic, archetypal forms of Gothic words not found in any written records tin exist restored for scholarly inquiry, eastward.g. G. lernen, OE lerian, Goth. *laisian.

Changes of Vowels

Strict differentiation of long and short vowels is normally regarded as an important feature of the Germanic group. The contrast of brusque and long vowels is supported by the different directions of their changes. While long vowels mostly tended to go closer and to diphthongise, short vowels, on the contrary, frequently changed into mor� open sounds.

1. IE brusque oand a changed into short a in Germanic.E.thousand.:

IE Germ IE Germ

R. ������ Chiliad. Apfel L. octō Goth. ahtau

L. noctem Goth. Nahts Gr. Oktō G. Acht

R. ���� M. Nacht R. ������

2. The merging of long vowels proceeded in the opposite management: IE long ōand ā appear as long ō in Germanic languages. E.yard.:

IE Germ IE Germ

L. frater Goth. Brōþar L. flōs �bloom� OE blōma

Gr. phrātōr OE broþor

Thus, equally a upshot of these changes, at that place was neither a short oor a long āin Germanic languages. After these sounds appeared from different sources.

Ablaut

The almost important characteristic of the system of Germanic vowelsis the so-called Ablaut, or gradation, which is a spontaneous, positionally independent �lteration of vowels. The Germanic languages inherited ablaut from the common Indo-European menstruation. Alteration of vowels occurred in the root, suffix or ending depending on the grammatical course or significant of the give-and-take.

In Germanic languages ablaut takes the form: i � a � nix. Cf., for example, the amending of vowels in Gothic strong verbs of the 2^nd course:

Infinitive Past tense sing. By tense pl. By participle

Thouiusan grandaus kusum kusans ����������

If we ignore the common element u,thereremains a series i � a � ziprepresenting ablaut.

Umlaut (Germanic fracture)

Another phenomenon common for all Germanic languages was the tendency of phonetic absorption of the root vowel to the vowel of the ending, the so-�alled Umlaut, or mutation. In certain phonetic conditions, namelybefore the nasal [n] and before [i] or [j] in the adjacent syllable, the short [east], [i] and [u] remained or became close (i.e. appeared as [i] and [u]),while in the absence of these conditions the more open allophones were used: [due east] and [o], respectively. For example:

Goth harjis OE here �ground forces�

Goth dōmjan OE dēman �deem�

Goth kuni OE cynn �kin�

4. Basic Peculiarities of Grammar

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